Poverty and Lifeboat Ethics Essay Example for Free

Poverty and Lifeboat Ethics Essay A famous Chinese proverb goes: â€Å"Give a man a fish and he will eat for a day; teach him how to fish and he will eat for the rest of his days.† Although this wise advice was given thousands of years ago, nowadays looks like no powerful or rich government on Earth understands that sentence. Garrent Hardin, author of â€Å"Lifeboat Ethics: The Case Against Helping the Poor† show us an honest perspective on how the rich countries in the world, by donating food and money, instead of helping poor countries get out of their misery, cause more hunger and strife. In addition, he tells us that overpopulation in poor countries should be controlled soon, or the current situation will turn ugly very fast. Although Hardin’s evidence is almost indisputable, his position is not. I understand why the author believes that helping poor people is a bad idea but he isn’t looking at many others sides of the situation. At the beginning, my reaction was the opposite. I was totally convinced by Hardin’s theory. I desperately sought a place within a â€Å"lifeboat!† But after discussing the essay in class, and hearing myself repeat Hardin’s words that express his indifference about poor people, and also rethinking his thesis in which poor people don’t have a chance for a better life, I changed my position. I can’t support those ideas because in my own point of view, they are false. It is just not true. Some countries and some societies already made a change. Some countries like South Korea, Singapore and China have broken the poverty cycle. We shouldn’t be so negative and we must remember that even the poorest people on the planet have imagin ation, ideas, beliefs and an imperative necessity to change their own universe. However, I think that the answer is within Hardin’s thesis too. Poor people don’t need food and clothes only in cases of emergency. Instead, they need a few rich governments interested in giving them tools and ways to improve their economies, to develop their ideas and to use their creative minds. Without that little help all life in this planet will disappear. So, helping the poor is also a way of helping everyone else, even rich people. And here Hardin’s thoughts are necessary: â€Å"Without a true world government, controlled reproduction and the use of available resources, the sharing ethic of the spaceship is impossible.† (Lifeboat Ethics: The Case Against Helping the Poor. Pg. 310.) If the poorest destroy their natural resources, the consequences will be for everyone, regardless of how much each possesses. In conclusion, I think Hardin is correct when he asks about the future on Earth, if we take statistics and analyze their results for the year 2050. However, his position against helping poor people and trying to eliminate them from the face of the Earth is wrong. I believe in a true world, where rich countries use their development technology and their healthy, well-nourished minds to decrease the percentage of poverty in the world, and where everyone wins the right to live in this, our planet Earth.

Academic Culture In Different Countries

Academic Culture In Different Countries Academic culture refers to the attitudes, values and ways of behaving that are shared by people who work or study in universities, for example, lecturers, researchers and students. (Brick, J, 2009, p.2) What constitutes academic culture is different for students who come from different cultural backgrounds? The academic culture is totally different for Malaysia and Australia. In Malaysia education, the teaching styles is more teacher-centered where teachers will be giving exactly all the information to students and students are not expected for give respond to teachers questions. It is called spoon-feeding learning styles in Malaysia. This learning style is very popular in Malaysia education because it makes the learning easier to students. Therefore, students dont need to find any extra information for their studies. However, the teaching styles for Australia education is based on student-centered. Australian students are expected to play an active role during tutorial. Students need to have an active participation in discussion with their peers. Besides, students are able to challenge to lecturer or tutor because they can express their opinion. In Malaysia, the education system is more exam-oriented. Therefore, spoon-feeding learning styles will make students only study for specific books or the notes that they get from teachers. Other than that, students will follow the instruction that given by teachers which is memorizing the notes and go for examination. In this approach, students dont understand the knowledge they learned. So, they cant become an active learner in the future. Conversely, Australian education system is more practical-oriented. They are focusing on student understanding. It is not just study everything without understanding the knowledge. Students are advised to voice out their opinion during discussion. It is a training program for them to become independent learners in the future. MCD 1510 Learning Studies (Task 2) Culture is an integral part of society. An individuals attitudes, values, beliefs, arts, ideals, modes of perception, and habits of thought are greatly influenced by the culture in which he or she lives. Every society has a different culture, where people who share their culture also share their attitudes, specific languages, behaviors, values, and traditions. It is easy to know the culture background for a person based on their attitudes and behaviors. For example, the common perception of Australians is that they are informal, open and direct and say what they mean. They call people by their first name and say please and thank you to be polite. They are allowed to call teachers by their first name, even though they are students. This showed that they believe that people should be treated in the same way and the principle of giving people a fair go. Conversely, most Chinese has a very formal culture when they talk to someone who has a higher status and older than themselves. They place their culture importance on hierarchy. They need to show their respect when talk to older people and people who has a higher status. Therefore, they call a persons whole name which is his or her first and last name together. Other than that, Chinese has a lot of etiquettes during meeting, gift giving and dinning. Besides, greetings are formal and important and the oldest person must be always greeted first. However, culture is not only about the different culture countries background. There is a culture named academic culture which is the culture of universities. Academic culture refers to the attitudes, values and ways of behaving that are shared by people who work or study in universities, for example, lecturers, researchers and students. New students have to learn new knowledge, new skills and new attitudes, values and ways of behaving; that is, they have to learn a new academic culture. Therefore, academic culture is unfamiliar to many students who come from different countries background. English-speaking universities are the universities who have used the language of English as an instruction. However, it is not necessary that those universities are sharing the same academic culture although they are teaching in English. One of the ideas for academic culture is there is more than one way to approach a problem. Scholars tried to find the most useful answer when they are approaches to a problem in different ways. Each scholar presents their ideas in the way that he or she does agree with and criticizes ideas that he or she does not agree with. This shown that there are many scholars in English-speaking universities believe academic knowledge develops. *dont understand the describe how many scholars in English-speaking universities believe academic knowledge develops. MCD 1510 Learning Studies (Task 3) Academic writing is a particular style of formal and expressive writing. In this form of writing, it should be third person, formally toned writing and precise words. Text 4 is another extract from an article on deforestation. There are several ways to show that this text is a piece of academic article. The purpose of Text 4 is to explain what happen after deforestation, so its tone is logical, rational and impersonal. It is logical because it outlines the happen after deforestation, so the reader can see the reasoning. Besides, it is rational because the article is based on evidence and research. It is important to use evidence and reasons in academic writing, because it shows whether the research is based on support or not support. Therefore, there is supporting arguments and facts for this article which the reader can check it. It is impersonal, because it is based on verifiable evidence not personal feelings. It is objective writing because the article is written in third person not first person. Other than that, it is a formal writing style because there is no slang, no abbreviation and complete sentences. Based on the referencing, it is an authoritative website by government. This means that it is the website which reader can trust the argument and facts for the article. There are one more features of academic arguments can be identified. An academic article has the strength and logical order of arguments. The information should be giving verifiable to support the discussion when writing an academic article. Besides, this article is using formal words for the writing. MCD 1510 Learning Studies (Task 4) There are some major features of academic culture in University life. One of the major features of academic culture in University life is student voice should come through when writing academic work. This means that excessive cutting and pasting other peoples ideas is not encouraged. It is so called plagiarism when students are cutting and pasting other peoples ideas in their assignment. Besides, student arguments need to be well supported to make their arguments stronger and avoid plagiarism. Otherwise, students are also expected to get the main ideas in other argument and critically evaluate the merit of argument. Other than that, student arguments need to be logical and evidence based. This means you have to remain objectives or impartial. Therefore, there is supporting arguments and facts for this article which the reader can check it. After that, students are advised to engage in wide reading. It brings out multiple perspectives which are different opinion and have a range of arguments to support the point of view. This means that ideas are no black or white.

Essay --

Literature Of The 1990's Culture – The Definition The word culture is a very broad-based term. Different people define culture in different aspects. People learn culture. That is culture's essential feature. The term culture is used to refer collectively to a society and its way of life or in reference to human culture as a whole. The Modern technical definition of culture, as socially patterned human thought and behavior, was originally proposed by the nineteenth-century British anthropologist, Edward Tylor. This definition is an open-ended list, which has been extended considerably since Tylor first proposed it. Some researchers have attempted to create exhaustive universal lists of the content of culture, usually as guides for further research. Others have listed and mapped all the culture traits of particular geographic areas. Barbarism Barbarism on the other hand, can be, or in fact is the exact opposite of culture. It is brutality and extremism, which definitely is not a part of culture in any sense at all. Lexically we define barbarism as, a brutal barbarous savage act, that is something not allowed by any culture. Barbarism is all about morals or rather no morals at all. Therefore, barbarism can rightly be termed as the devil in the cultured society. Relationship Between Culture And Barbarism It might not be very difficult to draw a relation between culture and barbarism. Barbarism starts right from where culture ends. It is the root cause of an uncultured society. Where culture is the strength of a healthy society, barbarism proves to be its destruction. Culture, as a body of learned behaviors common to a given human society, acts rather like a template (i.e. it has predictable form and content), shaping behavior and c... ... and physical being, this is the conception that now governs civilized humanity. It is, in essence, a return to and a larger development of the old Hellenic ideal, with a greater stress on capacity and utility and a very diminished stress on beauty and refinement; We may suppose, however, that this is only a passing phase; the last elements are bound to recover their importance as soon as the commercial period of modern progress has been over passed, and with that recovery, not yet in sight but inevitable, we shall have all the proper elements for the development of man as a mental being. References BOOKS Fugitive pieces - by Anne Michaels The God of Small Things – by Arundhati Roy WEBSITES http://sai.aros.net/aurobindo/barbarism.html http://www.wsu.edu:8001/vcwsu/commons/topics/culture/culture-definition.html http://www.princeton.edu/plasweb/courses/fall_2002.htm

Sorcery In Morocco :: miscellaneous

Sorcery In Morocco According to Merriam- webster’s Collegiate dictionary, sorcery is defined as the use of power gained from the assistance or control of evil especially for divining. Sorcery is a phenomenon that has spread all over the world. It mainly consists of direction of the world into a spiritual power which is mysterious and unexplainable. In Morocco, sorcery is a very popular practice. It is practiced especially in the south of the country where people have strong beliefs in superstition. Believers in sorcery pretend that it has a great impact on the course of their lives. However, sorcery is a dangerous practice that affects the mind and the health of its users, in addition to the reputation of the country. At first glance, it seems to me that the most perilous impact of sorcery is its effect on the mind of those who practice it. Some believers might argue that these practices build self confidence. For instance, when a sorcerer assigns to them to do some rituals in order to make an operation successful, they face without fear. I totally disagree with them because as proved in many researches, those states of mind are only psychological and create a lot of mental troubles and instabilities. In Morocco, there is a huge population that completely believes in those practices. Therefore, the witches take profit from the ignorance of those people to start communicating some dumb information. In general, the information given by those sorcerers are common and related to the problem and the personality of the individual. Sorcerers are usually very intelligent and know exactly what the patient wants to hear. As a consequence, people become addicted to these kinds of practices and prefer it to c onsulting psychologists who can provide them with more accurate solutions. As a result, people become easily influenced, which by the way affects their personalities. The practice of sorcery in Morocco threatens the health of its users. Some sorcerers believe that their remedies are made from natural plants and do not menace the health of their patients. However, what is strange is that they always refuse to take their products to medical centers so that they can be Furthermore, people who have allergies can also suffer from dangerous diseases due to the fact that they take what their sorcerers give without the prescription of their doctors. Another important area that is suffering from this practice is the reputation and the culture of the country. Sorcery In Morocco :: miscellaneous Sorcery In Morocco According to Merriam- webster’s Collegiate dictionary, sorcery is defined as the use of power gained from the assistance or control of evil especially for divining. Sorcery is a phenomenon that has spread all over the world. It mainly consists of direction of the world into a spiritual power which is mysterious and unexplainable. In Morocco, sorcery is a very popular practice. It is practiced especially in the south of the country where people have strong beliefs in superstition. Believers in sorcery pretend that it has a great impact on the course of their lives. However, sorcery is a dangerous practice that affects the mind and the health of its users, in addition to the reputation of the country. At first glance, it seems to me that the most perilous impact of sorcery is its effect on the mind of those who practice it. Some believers might argue that these practices build self confidence. For instance, when a sorcerer assigns to them to do some rituals in order to make an operation successful, they face without fear. I totally disagree with them because as proved in many researches, those states of mind are only psychological and create a lot of mental troubles and instabilities. In Morocco, there is a huge population that completely believes in those practices. Therefore, the witches take profit from the ignorance of those people to start communicating some dumb information. In general, the information given by those sorcerers are common and related to the problem and the personality of the individual. Sorcerers are usually very intelligent and know exactly what the patient wants to hear. As a consequence, people become addicted to these kinds of practices and prefer it to c onsulting psychologists who can provide them with more accurate solutions. As a result, people become easily influenced, which by the way affects their personalities. The practice of sorcery in Morocco threatens the health of its users. Some sorcerers believe that their remedies are made from natural plants and do not menace the health of their patients. However, what is strange is that they always refuse to take their products to medical centers so that they can be Furthermore, people who have allergies can also suffer from dangerous diseases due to the fact that they take what their sorcerers give without the prescription of their doctors. Another important area that is suffering from this practice is the reputation and the culture of the country.

Essay --

Bharathidasan University is promoting the adoption, creation, use, dissemination, and preservation of electronic theses and dissertations (ETDs). We support electronic publishing and open access to scholarship in order to enhance the sharing of knowledge worldwide. Our website includes resources for librarians, faculty, students, and the general public. Topics include how to find, create, and preserve ETDs. An electronic library (colloquially referred to as a digital library) is a library in which collections are stored in electronic media formats (as opposed to print, microform, or other media) and accessible via computers.[1][not in citation given]The electronic content may be stored locally, or accessed remotely via computer networks. An electronic library is a type of information retrieval system. In the context of the DELOS, a Network of Excellence on Digital Libraries, and DL.org, a Coordination Action on Digital Library Interoperability, Best Practices and Modelling Foundations, Digital Library researchers and practitioners and software developer produced a Digital Library Reference Model[2][3] which defines a digital library as: "A potentially virtual organisation, that comprehensively collects, manages and preserves for the long depth of time rich digital content, and offers to its targeted user communities specialised functionality on that content, of defined quality and according to comprehensive codified policies."[4] The first use of the term digital library in print may have been in a 1988 report to the Corporation for National Research Initiatives[5][not in citation given] The term digital libraries was first popularized by the NSF/DARPA/NASA Digital Libraries Initiative in 1994.[6] These draw heavily on As We Ma... ...s (floppy disks for example) are emulated, bit-streams (the actual files stored in the disks) are preserved and operating systems are emulated as a virtual machine. Only where the meaning and content of digital media and information systems are well understood is migration possible, as is the case for office documents.[19][20][21] However, at least one organization, the WiderNet Project, has created an offline digital library, the eGranary, by reproducing materials on a 4 TB hard drive. Instead of a bit-stream environment, the digital library contains a built-in proxy server and search engine so the digital materials can be accessed using an Internet browser.[22] Also, the materials are not preserved for the future. The eGranary is intended for use in places or situations where Internet connectivity is very slow, non-existent, unreliable, unsuitable or too expensive. Essay -- Bharathidasan University is promoting the adoption, creation, use, dissemination, and preservation of electronic theses and dissertations (ETDs). We support electronic publishing and open access to scholarship in order to enhance the sharing of knowledge worldwide. Our website includes resources for librarians, faculty, students, and the general public. Topics include how to find, create, and preserve ETDs. An electronic library (colloquially referred to as a digital library) is a library in which collections are stored in electronic media formats (as opposed to print, microform, or other media) and accessible via computers.[1][not in citation given]The electronic content may be stored locally, or accessed remotely via computer networks. An electronic library is a type of information retrieval system. In the context of the DELOS, a Network of Excellence on Digital Libraries, and DL.org, a Coordination Action on Digital Library Interoperability, Best Practices and Modelling Foundations, Digital Library researchers and practitioners and software developer produced a Digital Library Reference Model[2][3] which defines a digital library as: "A potentially virtual organisation, that comprehensively collects, manages and preserves for the long depth of time rich digital content, and offers to its targeted user communities specialised functionality on that content, of defined quality and according to comprehensive codified policies."[4] The first use of the term digital library in print may have been in a 1988 report to the Corporation for National Research Initiatives[5][not in citation given] The term digital libraries was first popularized by the NSF/DARPA/NASA Digital Libraries Initiative in 1994.[6] These draw heavily on As We Ma... ...s (floppy disks for example) are emulated, bit-streams (the actual files stored in the disks) are preserved and operating systems are emulated as a virtual machine. Only where the meaning and content of digital media and information systems are well understood is migration possible, as is the case for office documents.[19][20][21] However, at least one organization, the WiderNet Project, has created an offline digital library, the eGranary, by reproducing materials on a 4 TB hard drive. Instead of a bit-stream environment, the digital library contains a built-in proxy server and search engine so the digital materials can be accessed using an Internet browser.[22] Also, the materials are not preserved for the future. The eGranary is intended for use in places or situations where Internet connectivity is very slow, non-existent, unreliable, unsuitable or too expensive.

How I Would Direct Act 5 Scene 1 From Macbeth Essay

Introduction If I were to direct a new version of Scene 1 of Act 5 in Macbeth I would make it a modernised version. The characters would wear modern clothes and live in modern surroundings and the story would have to be slightly altered to fit this modern setting. I think that I could still let the characters use archaic language as in the original Macbeth script. The scene would be less formal as it seems to be in the RSC version, it would be a lot more relaxed. I would try to make the scene more interesting for younger people and the target audience would be around 12-18. The film would not be a comedy or an action film it would be a tragedy film. To make the scene interesting for this audience I would have to change many parts of the scene like the camera angles, colours and costumes. Casting I would like Lady Macbeth to be a small person who seems defenceless but has a strong mind rather like Sarah Siddons who first played the part of Lady Macbeth in 1785. Lady Macbeth would be a very harsh person who deteriorates throughout the film and in this particular scene is very weak, defenceless and also very stressed. She would not be as old as the Lady Macbeth from the RSC version and would be a lot more like that of the Polanski version. She will also look very pale as she is worried about what she is going to do and she will also have make-up on so she looks tired with â€Å"bags† under her eyes. Also in this scene would be the Gentlewoman who, in my version would be like a Maid in a large modern houshold. She would be quite large (but not too big) and she would be a very friendly and comforting person who was very lively and hyperactive. The Maid would be a very sure and decisive person who would be confident in her own decisions. Also the Maid would be very reliable and a trustworthy person. She would talk a lot in the scene and would be very loyal to Lady Macbeth. She would be very shocked by Lady Macbeth’s unusual behaviour just like the Gentlewoman in the RSC version. You would be able to see her concern for Lady Macbeth in the actors eyes. The Maid would probably not be English as many Maids in modern times are from foreign countries. The last person to be cast in this scene would be the Doctor. In my version the Doctor would be a very sympathetic man who cares for his patients he would reassure the maid and would be very informed and helpful for Lady Macbeth. As with the maid the doctor would be very shocked and would be worried by Lady Macbeth’s behaviour unlike the doctor in the Polanski version. The doctors would look very professional but also very caring. The doctor would also be a quite an old man. Costume The costumes in my scene would be quite light and modern and would not be too dark as I thought the costumes used in the RSC version were (or was that because it was in black and white?). I think that Lady Macbeth would wear a night-gown or something similar and would have long hair, probably blonde unlike the RSC version as I did not think that short brown hair would fit with my scene or settings. Lady Macbeth would be quite small also, giving the impression of a defenceless person. The Maid would be wearing the typical maid clothes, probably a dress that was white and blue or black She would be holding a tray of some sort with drinks on. The Doctor would probably be wearing a Hugo Boss suit and have grey hair. He would also wear small glasses that he would wear on the end on his nose which is always shown as a sign of intelligence. He would enter the room with a black suitcase and would have a professional image. I would also like the Doctor to have a small beard aswell. Movement I’m my scene the Maid and the Doctor would enter the bedroom of Lady Macbeths house quickly and as they were walking the would be talking. Then Lady Macbeth would enter rubbing her hands in a jerky way and very quickly like the Polanski version. Lady Macbeth would be shivering while the Doctor and Maid were looking on at her. Then Lady Macbeth would go to bed – talking in her sleep. After this the concerned Doctor would exit and the scene ends. Language And Performance I’m my scene Lady Macbeth would have a quiet tone of voice and would whisper some of her lines. She would not cry out as loud as in the RSC version as I think that it was a bit too exaggerated in that interpretation of the scene. The tone of her voice would be horrified and frightened and would be very alarming to watch. Her voice would be as if it was on the edge and she was about to snap and go completely mad. She needs to show fear aswell when she says â€Å"Hell is murky† because this is showing her fear of death and going to hell for what she has done. The Doctor in this scene would be calm on the outside but he would feel very shocked and he would be asking the Maid questions very quietly – almost whispering. The Maid’s tone of voice would also be shocked and she would almost scream from seeing the distressed Lady Macbeth. She would look away and would seem to be suffering pain from Lady Macbeth’s suffering. Her voice would show this. I think my version of this scene would be more emotional that the Polanski version but less emotional than the RSC version, it would be a balance between the two. Even though it would be set in modern times the language would remain the same as the original Macbeth script and no parts would be edited from the scenes except for censorship. I would direct some parts of the scene to be how I want them to be shown. At the start of the scene when the Doctor says â€Å"What have you heard her say† the Maid must look extremely worried about what she might tell the doctor. As Lady Macbeth walks out the doctor and Maid will talk in a whisper so that they do not disturb her. Lady Macbeth must look alone and have a blank look on her face. When she says â€Å"Yet here’s a spot† referring to the blood which cannot seem to be removed from her hands she must seem angry and frustrated but also sorry for herself. It should seem as though Lady Macbeth is announcing her troubles. The Maid must seem very forgiving and concerned at this point. As the speech of Lady Macbeth goes on she needs to get more and more built up before crying at the end (but not too loud as in RSC). Camera Angles My version of this scene would have a long shot of the Macbeth household at the start of the scene and then would have close up’s of the characters faces as in both the Polanski version and the RSC version. This way you can see the characters faces close up so you can almost see what they are thinking. I could also have a Lady Macbeth camera where there is a camera that seems as if it its inside Lady Macbeth’s head, showing what she sees and hears, this would let the audience know what Lady Macbeth was thinking and seeing and would involve them more in the film. For example when she is trying to wash the blood off her hand but in her dreams she cannot, I could switch to the Lady Macbeth camera to show her saying â€Å"Out, damned spot!† And showing the camera pointing at her hand with the blood on it. Then I could switch back to the bemused Doctor and Maid wondering what is going on. I think this would be a good way of showing the scene. Relationships With Other Characters Lady Macbeth in my cut of the scene would be very close to her Maid and they would care for each other. The Maid would care for Lady Macbeth a lot more than Lady Macbeth would care for the Maid because Lady Macbeth is in my version a very harsh person who does not care much for anyone except for her husband Macbeth. The Maid would be exceptionally loyal to Lady Macbeth and follow all of her orders. The Doctor would also be very caring for both characters and he would trust the Maid although he would be slightly confused as to what is going on and he would rely on the Maid to inform him. Staging, Setting and Lighting I would set the scene in the Macbeth household which would be in the Scottish Highlands. As the setting is so modern the story before this scene would have had to be altered slightly – for example instead of killing the King, Macbeth could have killed his boss and become the Manager of a company. The house would be very large and modern and the scene would be mainly set inside Lady Macbeth’s bedroom. The furniture would be very expensive and modern and the room would be quite light but would have red curtains which the sun would shine through making the whole room seem the colour of blood which would symbolise danger and insecurity. The bed would be a very ornate but modern four poster bed. The Macbeths would be a very upmarket family. This setting would be very different to the setting of the RSC version which seemed to be set on a stage with not much scenery. My version will be alike the Polanski version in that it would be in a proper film set. I would also have a good soundtrack that was one of the things (I think) was missing from both versions of the scene that we saw. The music would be included in the scenes to create more atmosphere but it would be good music that would add atmosphere without really being noticed. General Impression The general impression hopefully made from my scene would be that the audience feels sympathetic towards Lady Macbeth. They should be drawn in so that they end up feeling sorry for her when earlier on in the play they thought she was a deceitful and cold blooded person. It should show people that you can’t hide murder – or at least she couldn’t. I would also keep ideas of blood, sleep and water in the play as these devices add to the drama of the film.

Layman View of Osi Reference Model

Layman View of OSI Reference Model (By Diganta Deka, Former Student, Proprietor-Trainer East India Technologies, Guwahati. ), diganta. [email  protected] com When we talk about computer networks and how computers operate in networks, things do not remain as simple as it seems to be. Here numerous protocols work in tandem for the sake of data integrity during the course of data transfer. To make things worse there are a lot of vendors in the market who provide and produce great number of network hardware and push us to use them.Therefore to provide a solution and to make all these devices communicate in 1984, The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) developed the Open Systems Interconnections (OSI) reference model. Basically it described how information is transferred from one networking component to another, from the point when a user enters information using a mouse or a keyboard to when that information is converted to electrical or light signals transferred along a piece of wire or radio waves through the air and vice versa.So we can say, OSI reference model provides a foundation to use when you are considering what happens between the network components when they talk with each other. ISO developed a seven layer model which allowed vendors and network administrators to understand a stable data transfer and also provided guidelines for implementing new networking standards. Table-1 below briefly describes these layers, their associated services and protocols supported. Layer| Function| Service Description| | Application| The Application layer provides an interface between the communication software and any other application that needs to communicate outside the computer on which the application resides. This layer represents the services that directly support applications such as software for file transfers, database access, and electronic mail. | 6| Presentation| The Presentation layer translates data from the Application layer into an int ermediary format, such as ASCII text, EBCDIC text, binary, BCD, JPEG etc.This layer also provides services such as data encryption, and data compression. | 5| Session| The Session layer allows two applications on different computers to establish, use, and end a session. This includes the control and management of multiple bidirectional messages so that the application can be notified if only some of a series of messages are completed. This allows Presentation layer to have a seamless view of an incoming stream of data. | 4| Transport| The Transport layer defines the end-to-end transmission of data between nodes (e. . PCs), including flow control and error recognition and recovery. It also repackages long messages when necessary into smaller packets for transmission and, at the receiving end, rebuilds packets into the original message. | 3| Network| The Network layer provides routing, logical network addressing, path determination, media/framing translation, frame fragmentation, and congestion signaling/control. The routing concepts define how devices route or forward packets to their final destination.Logical addressing defines how each device can have an address that can be used by the routing process. Path determination refers to the work done by which all possible routes are learned, but the best route is chosen for use. | 2| Data Link| The Data Link layer packages raw bits from the Physical layer into frames (logical, structured packets). This layer specifies the device addressing, topology and media access, bit/byte synchronization, flow control, and error detection/recovery services associated with sending frames of data over a physical link. 1| Physical| The Physical layer specifies how bit streams are to be transmitted over a physical link in the network. This includes physical characteristics of transmission medium, including pins, use of pins, electrical, current, encoding, light modulation and the rules for how to activate and deactivate the use of the physical medium. | Table-1 Within the network, data traverses a network stack using a process called encapsulation. When an application requires communications resources, the message is handed over to the network stack’s application layer.There, the message is processed into a Protocol Data Unit (PDU). Application specific header information is wrapped around the data. The resultant PDU is then passed to the stack’s presentation layer, where additional header information is added. Each subsequent layer in the source system’s network stack adds service-specific header information to the PDU, until a fully formatted data frame is presented to the physical layer for transmission onto the communications medium.This encapsulation process is illustrated in Figure 1. Encapsulation Process Fig-1 The real data transfer process starts from the Transport Layer, where the data is segmented and hence the data is termed as segment in transport layer. When the segments rea ch the network layer each segment is broken into packets. As these packets are transferred to Data Link Layer each packet is again broken into frames and in Physical Layer the frames converts into Bits. When the bit stream reaches the destination system, the reverse occurs.Each layer in the destination system’s network stack analyzes and then strips its associated header information from the message. The resultant PDU is then passed to the next higher layer, until the original message is presented to the destination application. Typically, a communication layer does not process, or alter the PDU’s content as generated by an adjacent layer. Information exchange only occurs between peer OSI layers. The peer relationship between OSI layers is illustrated in Figure 2.Illustrated Peer Relationship between OSI Layers Bit Stream Frame Packet Segment Data Stream Data Stream Data Stream Bit Stream Frame Packet Segment Data Stream Data Stream Data Stream Figure-2 Till now we hav e been talking about the concept behind the OSI reference model, but if we do not discuss about the protocols (protocol is an agreed set of rules by which devices in a network or number of networks can successfully communicate with each other) and devices that work in each layer of the model then the discussion would remain incomplete.Table-2 and Table-3 respectively represent the devices and the protocols used in various layers in the OSI Reference Model. Devices and the Layers at Which They Function Layer| Name of the layer| Devices| 3| Network| Router, Layer3 Switch| 2| Data Link| Switch, Bridge and NIC| 1| Physical| Hub, Repeater| Table-2 Protocols and the Layers at Which They Function Name of the Layers| Protocols| Application| FTP, Telnet, NFS, HTTP, TFTP, DHCP, DNS, VoIP, SNMP, POP3, SMTP| Presentation| ASCII, HTML, JPEG| Session| SQL, RPC|Transport| TCP, UDP, SPX| Network| IP, X. 25, IPX, Q. 931| Data Link| HDLC, Ethernet, LLC, Frame Relay, ATM, Q. 921, FDDI| Physical| RS-23 2, V. 35, 10bT, RJ45, G. 703/G. 704| Table-3 In the field of networking there very few people who is not aware of OSI reference model and it is impossible to imagine the world of Information Technology without this model. Over the years we have come across so many network hardware, software or operating systems but everything is manufactured keeping OSI reference model as a benchmark.